ISM Code, Costa Concordia capsize Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

ISM Code, Costa Concordia capsize - Essay Example The ISM code principles are as follows: All these ISM code principles can be implemented if only proper training facility to the officials. These training facilities are been given with the help of HRM principles which increases the human resource by proper training and implementation. The development of human recourses management has facilitated in increasing number of skilled officials. The officials in shipping industry like captain, major, emergency unit etc are appointed from the HRM having full knowledge of HRM principles. The safety management in shipping industry under IMO (International Maritime Organization) has implemented ISM facilities to the industry. The ISM code under the IMO has several guidelines like operation of the ships with the framework for proper development. Pollution prevention strategies are a good practice of the industry under the principles of ISM code. The ISM code is made compulsory since 1998. This code enables Safety Management System (SMS) to establish by every company of shipping industry. These SMS are defines by the person like managers or bareboat character who is assumed to be the person who regulates the ship operations regularly. This facility of SMS in ISM code is useful in the emergency times of accidents like the case of drowning of ship in Costa Concordia in Italy in July 2012. Due to the deficiency in the emergency signal, the accident took place, as per the evidences (IMO, 2014). The ISM code has been set up in the industry to ensure the safety and pollution prevention of environment. Thus for the betterment of the shipping industry and the development of safety in the industry, it needs proper managerial efficiencies in work-force which is given by the implementation of HRM strategies. Human Resource Management is a strategic management of the workforce for dealing and upgrading organisations in various industrial fields. The main principles of

Meaning Behind the Mark Essay Example for Free

Meaning Behind the Mark Essay Humans have ordained their bodies with tattoos for thousands of years. These permanent and artistic marks have always had a personal meaning. The beautiful marks that were so carefully and meticulously etched onto the skin have served many purposes. The tattoo showed signs of love and inspiration while others were used to ward off danger or to protect the human from certain dangers. Some people view tattoos as unnecessary marks on the human body, while others believe the tattoo represents life, death, and inspiration. The very first documented tattoo was found on a frozen mummy in today’s Maori. The mummy was 5,200 years old. Tattoos were also discovered on ancient female mummies in Northern Egypt. At first archeologists thought the mummies were slaves or servants to royalty but, the mummies were located in a queen’s tomb. The mummies had tattooed symbols throughout the body. Speculation among the archeologists was said to be that the tattoos are a healing power and were put on the body were it hurt. The mummies in the tomb are also documented to have small dots all over the abdomen and a tattoo of a small figurine on the tops of the thighs. The small figurine is believed to be that of the Bes God. Bes is the protector of women during labor. The women would tattoo a web like design all across their abdomens and down the pubic area when they became pregnant. It is written that by doing this it would keep them and their unborn child safe during pregnancy. (Lineberry, 2008). Along with the Egyptians several other cultures took up the art of tattooing. Woman in Borneo tattooed symbols on their forearms to indicate the skill that they were good at. If a woman wore the symbol to show she was a basket weaver, her status of marriageable material increased. Markings that were placed along the wrist and around the fingers were thought to ward off any illnesses. Greeks used tattoos to identify spies and normally the marks would indicate rank. Tattoos were also used to identify slaves who were owned by certain Roman families and the Romans also used tattoos to mark criminals. Unfortunately, this practice of marking criminals is still practiced today. Century after century tattoos continued to be an integral part of society. It was not until the late 1800’s that tattoos were seen in the U. S. and even then tattoos were mainly used by the American Indians. Native American Indians used tattoos as a way of recognizing tribe members. Tattoos were also used for spiritual reasons. â€Å"In America, the earliest records of tattoos come from ship logs, letters, and diaries written by sailors in the early 19th century. The most popular designs in traditional American tattooing evolved from various artists who traded, copied, swiped, and improved on each other’s works. † ( Vanishing tattoo, 2008). Soldiers and sailors who fought in both world wars used the various symbols. â€Å"Most of the designs represented courage, patriotism; defiance of death, and a longing for loved ones left behind. (Vanishing tattoo, 2008). During the Civil war several tattoo artists found employment in Washington, D. C The best-known tattooist of the time was a man from Germany named Martin Hildebrandt; he began his career in 1846. Martin Hildebrandt traveled a great deal and was welcomed in both Union and Confederate camps. Martin Hildebrandt establish ed what is to be considered the first American tattoo studio in 1870, in New York City. Another famous tattooist is Samuel O’reilly, he invented the first electric tattoo machine. Overnight tattooing in the USA was revolutionized. Vanishing tattoo, 2008). In America tattoos continued to gain popularity. Body ornamentation was spreading among western societies. Working class men wore tattoos primarily as a symbol of tough masculine pride. In the 1950s and 1960s the hippie movement turned to Asian tattooing techniques as personal expression of spiritual and mystical aestheticism. In 1970 the young generation of the punk movement used tattoos as symbols of rebellion in a political protest against society’s strict structure and values. In the eighties there was a decline in the percentage of men and women getting tattoos. This was primarily because tattoos were frowned upon. This trend of tattoos being unpopular continued until the 21st century where, tattoos today are considered body art. The continued popularity of tattoos has placed tattooists in the category of â€Å"fine artists. † (Tattoo you, 2008). As with any fad there comes’ a downside, for certain individuals who chose to get tattoos for personal reasons or self expression there are those who chose to use tattoos as a form of rebellion. Teenagers view tattoos as a way to rebel against their parents. With teenagers their impressionable minds can take one look at all the young and upcoming celebrities and if a teenager was to see a tattoo on their role model it might just be one excuse to rebel. A different point of view on tattoos would be gangs. Gangs will tattoo members with numbers or words to show status or rank. Gang members who are in prison will get a tattoo to show other prisoners exactly what gang they belong to. Former gang members who have found religion often will sport a tattoo of a cross or the word â€Å"Jesus† and the day, month, and year they were saved. Walker, R, 2007). Individuals whose religion is important to them have also branched out and have gotten tattoos. There is a new Christian movement where young adults are getting the letters WWJD tattooed on them. In addition, the Celtic cross is making a comeback among people with an Irish decent. Among those who get a tattoo for inspiration or self expression, there are those few individuals who will go to no end to transform themselves into something completely different. Dennis Avner a. k. a. Stalking Cat, has transformed his body into a tiger literally. On his website Avner tells his story of why he has dedicated his life to follow his heritage. His parents were of Horon and Lakota tribes and after talking to a Native chief, who reportedly had told him to â€Å"follow the way of the tiger,† Avner did just that. In 1985 he left his job as a sonar submarine technician for the Navy and began his journey. Avner has spent up towards $200,000. 00 dollars to have his whole body tattooed with black and orange strips. His teeth and nails have been filed down to emulate that of the tiger. Avner also had metal rods implanted into his cheeks so during the day he can attach whiskers. Avner said his â€Å"life long dream of reaching his goal of becoming a tiger will be complete after he gets skin grafts of real fur applied to his own skin. † (Avner, 2007). Dennis Avner is not the only individual to have had extensive body tattooing. A tattooed hermit known as the Leopard man is really named Tom Leppard. Tom Leppard who lives in Isle of Skye lives in complete solitude only going to town once a month for supplies. Tom Leppard told BBC television in a rare interview that â€Å"I spent too long in the forces, 20 years. I can not mix with ordinary people any more†. (Leppard, 2007). Tom Leppard is completely covered from head to toe in leopard spots. He is according to Guinness World records is the world’s most tattooed man. There are those individuals who use tattoos as a way to make a living for instance, the â€Å"Enigma† is a man who is tattooed from head to toe in a blue puzzle pattern and he works in side shows in a traveling circus. Another performer â€Å"The Lizard man† is covered head to toe in green scales, has had plastic surgery on his face so it resembles that of a lizard, and he had his tongue surgically cut to be forked like a snake. The Lizard man works in Las Vegas as a performer. Today tattoos can be seen in every culture whether it is a little butterfly or a whole body tattoo. Tattoos continue to grow in popularity and in the future tattoos may hold a purpose other than just art. Scientists in Germany are exploring the option of delivering a new generation of experimental DNA vaccines more effectively by using tattoos rather than standard injections into the muscle. â€Å"Delivery of DNA via tattooing could be a way for a far more widespread commercial application of DNA vaccines†, said Martin Mueller of the German Cancer research center of Heidelberg. In the experiment no ink is actually used. The scientists use the tattoo machine its self o inject the vaccines. The vibrating needle penetrates the muscle deeper than a regular hypodermic needle making for a more effective method although more painful. Tattoo vaccines will not be for everyone but, will be valuable for delivering certain therapeutic vaccines to fight cancer or other serious conditions, where some pain is acceptable. ( Mueller, 2008). Also in the future Philips electronics are working on advance technology that reacts to the human touch. Sensors are applied to various parts of the body and when certain emotions are triggered the sensors react and a tattoo is made across the body. This interactive method is being designed with couples in mind. There will always be some individuals who view tattoos as unnecessary, while others will use tattoos as a way to show self expression, rebel against a parent, or to completely transform themselves. Tattoos in the future may hold the key as a way to better deliver life saving treatment. In the future tattoos can help in hance a couple’s sexuality. No matter what tattoos are used for there will always be a meaning behind the mark.

Middle Childhood Sexuality Education

Middle Childhood Sexuality Education Andrew Wilson Abstract Sex education is must for all students but it is vitally important to begin the education as soon as possible. Thus, it is best to start the sex education when normal education begins at the five to nine years of age or middle childhood. Beginning education at this age allows the child to easily assimilate his or her education without a fuss, embarrassment, or a feeling of strangeness. Sex education becomes matter of fact; just like studying history or math. The education should start with very basics of anatomy, reproduction, relationships, sexual behavior, gender roles and sexual health. Middle Childhood Sexuality Education Middle childhood sex education is geared toward age’s five to nine. Sex education can never be started too early and when regular school education begins is the best time to start the sex education curriculum. If presented at this age in a matter fact way, sex education will be received without embarrassment, unwillingness to share, and ask questions. It should address age appropriate topics in the following areas: human development, sexual behavior, relationships, personal skills, sexual health, and society. During the education, the goals of being at ease with their own body, awareness of sexual health, and sexual orientation should be kept in mind (Implementing). Human development must be presented first so each child understands their own human anatomy. Understanding the basic functions of your own body and that of the other sex is essential to understanding all other components of sex education. The following areas will be presented under the heading of human development: reproductive anatomy that discusses the names of body parts and the differences between boy and girls; the reproduction act including intercourse, conception, the uterus, and the result of a baby; body imagine includes discussion of shapes, sizes, and colors of people young and old; identity and orientation includes homosexuality, heterosexuality, appropriate labels and the respect for all sexual orientations (KidsHealth). Handouts with labeled body parts for both girls and boys will be handed out. The instructor will have an overhead with transparency for each sex. As the instructor names the body part, the children will follow along and color the named part the color the instructor desires, such as, the breast is pink. Following the coloring and naming section, the children will then have the chance to see and touch actual female and male models of the genitalia. Next, a discussion on the body’s diversity will be held with the children sitting in a circle around the instructor, as, the instructor ask the children to name how we are different –for example: male/female, black/white, skinny/heavy/normal, tall/short/average with the different development groups of infant, child, adolescent, young adult, middle-aged, and the elderly. Giving out pictures of the different body diversities to the children when they call them out as a reward and encouragement for participation will be done. The reading of a book concerning and explaining sexual intercourse, conception, development of the fetus and birth of the baby will be done. A good book for this is the book, You Were Born on Your Very First Birthday. After reading of the book, the instructor will encourage the children to talk about and ask questions concerning the sexual act and its result. The next reading will be to cover sexual orientation, in regards to gay and lesbian sexuality, to introduce the children to these alternate sexual orientations. An acceptable book that covers these areas is, Love Makes a Family. Again, the follow up of the book should include time for questions and discussion between the instructor and the children. Following the presentation of human development, the subject of relationships will be discussed. Families, friendships, love, dating, marriage and/or lifetime commitment, and the raising children or the decision to not have children will be broken down further in to subtopics. Under families a discussion will be conducted concerning the different kind of families found, how the family can change, and the roles of care for each other, and the different kinds of love within the family. The topic of friendships will cover the components of sharing, forgiving, hurting, and apologizing within the structures of various friendship structures. The importance of showing and sharing love and the different ways to show that love will be discussed. Dating will be defined and who dates, indicating teenagers, unmarried adults, and the single parent. Under marriage and lifetime commitments the reasons for marriage and divorce will be touched on. Under raising children, the instructor will cover the many reasons for having children, the effort and commitment it takes to raise children. Adoption will be discussed with the reasons and the desire for adoption will be discussed (Kids’). The next step will be to have the children share the composition of their own families and tomake a â€Å"flow chart† on the blackboard as the children describe their families. From that chart add friends, who their older brother, sister or even whom their parent is dating or living with, who they love, for example, grandparents, their neighbors, their baby sitter, any pregnancies in their immediate and/or extended family, divorce parents, step-parents, step brothers and sisters. Finally, define and describe family morals and values to the student. Have the children role-play expressing their feelings – happy, sad, confused, afraid, etc. Last discuss who they should trust and who to go to when they are afraid, confused, or need help. The next level to cover will be sexual behavior. These concepts of how the body feels good, curiosity of their body, acceptable masturbation practices will be defined. That is, who and where, shared sexual behavior is acceptable in regards to touching, hugging, kissing, and appropriate sexual behavior. Stressing that the sexual response is normal and healthy and how each sex is more alike than different (Davis). Sexual health will discuss contraception and abortion delving into wanted and unwanted pregnancies and who gets to make the choice. Sexual Transmitted Disease coverage will speak about the definition and causes, ways of getting STDs and ways to prevent STDs. Sexual abuse will cover body rights, appropriate touching and nudity, who to turn to if you feel you have been abused, stressing that the child is never at fault for the abuse and that boys and girls both can be abused. Reproductive and genital health will speak of the need for washing, cleanliness, doctor visits, the avo idance of alcohol, drugs, and smoking (Sex). The instructor will talk about when we enjoy our bodies alone or with others, such as, swimming, playing ball, and hugging. Make sure they understand that their feelings are normal, healthy, and good. Masturbation will be described as a normal activity but it should be conducted in privacy noting that privacy does not mean in secret, as if it is something to be hidden (Davis). Have the children tell how each boy and girl’s bodies are vary. An open talk about health ideas, smoking, drinking, drugs, cleanliness, doctor visits, germs and illness will be conducted. The instructor will continue by describing the underlying themes of STDs while stressing that they can only get sexual transmitted disease from sex (Lets). The final stage of discussion will cover gender roles, sex and religion, diversity and the sex coverage in the media. Gender roles will include similarities and difference between boys and girls, gender expectations of boys and girls, and parental roles. Sex and religion will involve similar yet different values (Coates). Sexual diversity is comprised of how differences are important, what stereotypes are and what sexual discrimination entails. Sexuality in the media contains both aspects of fiction and truth on television, in the movies, and on the internet. Age appropriateness in those medias will be portrayed (Lets). Have the class chat about gender roles and the way that they and their brothers and sisters have learned these roles. Ask questions, such as, â€Å"How do girls get treated?† and â€Å"How do boys get treated?† Give very general and basic instruction to the children that different religions have different ideas about sex. Encourage them to speak with their parents about any specific questions they have concerning sex and religion. Discuss stereotypes and sexual discrimination; plus, have the children share their ideas and thoughts about these subjects. Then talk about what sexual and stereotypical things they see on television and at the movies (Coates). In summary, the instructor needs to evaluate their effectiveness by the student’s ability to recognize the basic sexual genitalia and explain in very simple terms how reproduction happens. The students should then be able to describe basic relationships and when and whom to ask for help if necessary. The children should be able to verbalize how to take care of their health and define what a sexually transmitted disease is. Finally, the child should be able to convey the above information in a comfortable fashion and with the lack of embarrassment. References Coates, Nigel. (2008). Youthideas.co.uk.Retrieved from http://www.youthideas.co.uk/yw/talk/ Davies, Melanie. (2000). Tips for Talking with Kids about Masturbation. Retrieved from http://www.advocatesforyouth.org/parents/2027-tips-kids-mast Implementing Sex Education. Planned Parenthood. (2014). Retrieved from http://www.plannedparenthood.org/resources/implementing-sex-education-23516.htm KidsHealth. (2014). Sexual Orientation. The Nemour Foundation. Retrieved from http://kidshealth.org/parent/emotions/feelings/sexual_orientation.html Kids’ Ideas about Love. Rinkworks. Retrieved from http://www.rinkworks.com/said/kidlove.shtml Let’s Talk. Planned Parenthood of Indiana. Retrieved from http://www.ppin.org/education/education_documents/parent_packet.pdf Sex Education – Primary School Children. (2013). Better Health Channel. State Government of Victoria. Retrieved from http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Sex_education_primary_school_children

Free Essay on Nathaniel Hawthornes The Scarlet Letter - Character of Pearl :: Scarlet Letter essays

Pearl is The Scarlet Letter Pearl is the living embodiment of the scarlet letter because she forces Hester and Dimmesdale to accept their sins. The Puritan society looks at Pearl as a child of the devil, and a black hearted girl because she is the result of sin. Hester and Dimmesdale are both in the same situation in Pearl's eyes. Pearl wants Hester to realize that she is not the worst person in the world before she removes the scarlet letter. Pearl wants Dimmesdale to accept his sin, and be part of their life publicly. Pearl is all that Hester has in her life. She says that Pearl: "keeps me here in life! Pearl punishes me too! See ye not, she is the scarlet letter, only capable of being loved, and so endowed with a millionfold the Power of retribution of my sin?" (Hawthorne 100). Hawthorne shows that Pearl represents the scarlet letter not only symbolically but literally as well. Hester says that Pearl is the living scarlet letter, and causes Hester more anguish than the scarlet letter itself. Pearl is only difficult when she sees her mother trying to flee her sins the wrong way. This is why Pearl makes her mother keep the scarlet letter. Hester knows that she did a bad thing, but she does not feel that she is a good person, and will not feel that way until she accepts her sins. Hester wants to run away from the situation, leaving her sin behind her, and live content with Dimmesdale as a sinner with another sinner. Pearl will not let that happen because she knows that by leaving, Hester is escaping her sins and living life thinking that she is a bad person. Hester talks of leaving with Dimmesdale: "Let it suffice, that the clergyman resolved to flee, and not alone. ....(Dimmesdale) "But now-since I am irrevocably doomed-wherefore should I not snatch the solace allowed to the condemned culprit before his execution? Or, if this be the path to a better life, as Hester would persuade me, I surely give up no fairer prospect by pursuing it!" (Hawthorne 184). Hester desires to leave the world that she is a sinner in, and live a new life. Dimmesdale knows that he is going to die soon, so why not leave the place of his sin and go with Hester to a better life. Free Essay on Nathaniel Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter - Character of Pearl :: Scarlet Letter essays Pearl is The Scarlet Letter Pearl is the living embodiment of the scarlet letter because she forces Hester and Dimmesdale to accept their sins. The Puritan society looks at Pearl as a child of the devil, and a black hearted girl because she is the result of sin. Hester and Dimmesdale are both in the same situation in Pearl's eyes. Pearl wants Hester to realize that she is not the worst person in the world before she removes the scarlet letter. Pearl wants Dimmesdale to accept his sin, and be part of their life publicly. Pearl is all that Hester has in her life. She says that Pearl: "keeps me here in life! Pearl punishes me too! See ye not, she is the scarlet letter, only capable of being loved, and so endowed with a millionfold the Power of retribution of my sin?" (Hawthorne 100). Hawthorne shows that Pearl represents the scarlet letter not only symbolically but literally as well. Hester says that Pearl is the living scarlet letter, and causes Hester more anguish than the scarlet letter itself. Pearl is only difficult when she sees her mother trying to flee her sins the wrong way. This is why Pearl makes her mother keep the scarlet letter. Hester knows that she did a bad thing, but she does not feel that she is a good person, and will not feel that way until she accepts her sins. Hester wants to run away from the situation, leaving her sin behind her, and live content with Dimmesdale as a sinner with another sinner. Pearl will not let that happen because she knows that by leaving, Hester is escaping her sins and living life thinking that she is a bad person. Hester talks of leaving with Dimmesdale: "Let it suffice, that the clergyman resolved to flee, and not alone. ....(Dimmesdale) "But now-since I am irrevocably doomed-wherefore should I not snatch the solace allowed to the condemned culprit before his execution? Or, if this be the path to a better life, as Hester would persuade me, I surely give up no fairer prospect by pursuing it!" (Hawthorne 184). Hester desires to leave the world that she is a sinner in, and live a new life. Dimmesdale knows that he is going to die soon, so why not leave the place of his sin and go with Hester to a better life.

ADHD: Effects and Management

The subject of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) has undergone intense research in the past decade. Much of this is rooted in the fact that approximately 5% of children are affected with the disorder. Children with ADHD are identified as having increased behavioral difficulties because of excessive motor activities, poor self regulation and inattentiveness (Dulkan et al., 1997). It has been found that as many as 30% of children inflicted with ADHD have learning disabilities with academic underachievement becoming a common correlate. Since these children do not meet the expectations of society and their learning environment they are usually met with anger, punishment, and rejection. In turn these children develop a low-self esteem and low levels of motivation (Morgan, 1997). The etiology of ADHD is still a mystery to researchers. Within the field there are many correlates to biological (genetic) and social causes. The present paper seeks to explore current research through investigating the social and bio-genetic influence of ADHD on child intelligence. Testing and treatments of those with ADHD will also be discussed. In accordance with Dulcan et al. (1997) ADD, ADD-H, ADHD, although not identical, will be considered interchangeably due to similarity. Characteristics and Testing of ADHD Intelligence Even though ADHD occurs in people of every intelligence, a majority of children affected experience academic problems. These children may have specific learning disabilities, such as dyslexia, or may have multiple learning problems (Beiderman et al., 1993). In a study by MacLeod et al. (1996) comparing ADHD children with those unaffected, those with the disorder performed significantly worse than the others. Learning disabilities can be said to arise from attentional difficulties in the classroom setting. Many of these difficulties occur in tasks where listening and time is a factor. Reading disabilities have also been found as a result of ADHD (Millberger et al., 1991). Even though there is a higher prevalence of boys and those with low intelligence diagnosed, others with ADHD are impaired as well. Results have found that girls with this disorder face greater intellectual impairment, especially with picture vocabulary tasks, than boys or control girls (Seidman et al., 1997). There is also significant findings that the level of intelligence affects ADHD children in different ways. More specifically, those with both ADHD and normal to high intelligence are more prone to accidents, and have a smaller number of steady friends. Children who were identified with low intelligence and ADHD were found to have more behavioral and emotional problems in their adolescence. Long term studies have found that the outcome of these children was continued academic problems and school failures (Aman et al., 1996). However, there is suggestion ADHD children show greater artistic ability when writing or drawing slowly and precisely (Morgan, 1997). Testing the intelligence of ADHD involves a number of measures. Psychoeducational testing is used to assess intellectual ability and to search for learning disabilities. Tests such as the Wechler Intelligence Scale are used for intelligence testing, yet, much debate exists because of the need to change the test to meet the child's attention deficits (Braswell, 1991). A new intelligence test has been created by Naglieri (1997) called the Cognitive Assessment System to help diagnose and measure ADHD intelligence. This test is based on the premise that traditional tests don't measure processes such as planning and attention, which is essential in testing and detecting ADHD students. There is inconsistent data for the use of computerized tests of attention and vigilance for this purpose (Dulcan et al, 1997). In many cases the effects of ADHD on children†s intelligence is influenced by social factors. For instance studies show that symptoms become worse in situations which are unstructured, minimally supervised, boring, or require sustained attention or mental effort (Dulcan et al., 1997). A study by Greene et al. (1996) purports that learning disabilities are lead by difficulties in social functioning. There is an inverse deviation in IQ scores when related with increased social disability scores. The same study looked at teacher perceptions, which showed that the less likable and more aggressive the child was, the lower the performance. In researching verbal deficits in ADHD children, Faraone (1993) found many early intellectual problems linked with disruptive behavior such as hyperactivity and aggression. Data also shows that parental conflict, diminished family cohesion, and number of parents psychiatrically ill during the child's lifetime adversely affected intelligence scores (Greene et al., 1995). The researchers conclude that a significant correlation links IQ and social functioning. Another study by Biederman et al. (1995) shows similar results. Six factors were listed from the family environment which correlated with ADHD children's cognitive deficits. These include: severe marital discord, low social class, large family size, paternal criminal record, maternal mental disorder and foster home placement. This study asserts that children with ADHD have a more â€Å"malleable† IQ and are more adversely affected. The Greene et al. (1995) study, argues that family size is of no significance. Conversely, when investigating parental style and family influence on ADHD IQ levels, Naussbaum (1990) reports that little evidence exists. Poor school achievement for ADHD children is also associated with the need for immediate reinforcement. These children have been shown to perform as well as others in situations where consistent, immediate and positive reinforcement is in place. Rule governed behavior is additionally difficult for these students. Even when they understand the rules, they do not follow through with correct behavior, therefore the right social environment is necessary. Theories of Vygotsky†s such as â€Å"self talk† and social guidance were listed as possible influences (Braswell, 1990). Studies have found that lower intelligence in ADHD children is not socially mediated, but in fact rooted in genetics and human biology. In testing the families of these children, it has been shown that siblings show increased learning disabilities and higher rates of ADHD (Faraone, 1993). Family patterns show that approximately 20 to 30 percent of children with ADHD have a parent or sibling with similar problems. There is the suggestion that these children inherit a type of nervous system which makes them prone to learning disabilities (Nussbaum, 1990). Data from family risk, adoption, and twin research are supportive of this assertion (Braswell, 1991). However, recent research has indicated that ADHD and learning disabilities are transmitted independently in families and that their occurrence is due to non-random mating (Milberger et al., 1995). In looking at probands of parents, Biederman et al. (1993) also conclude ADHD and learning disabilities are independent, and rather due to random mating, therefore not etiologically dependent. Other researchers claim the intellectual deficit lies in physiological anomalies. More specifically, imbalance in the neurotransmitter systems of the brain, dysfunction in the reticular activating system, or a lag in brain development (Nussbaum, 1990). In determining if the neurocogonitive characteristic in individuals with resistance to thyroid hormone (RTH) are similar to those with ADHD, researchers have found that children with RTH have like deficient achievement levels as those with ADHD (Stein et al., 1995). There is also evidence that epinephrine (EPI) levels are lower in ADHD children. Urinary EPI levels are inversely related to fidgeting and aggression for second-grade ADHD students. During intelligence testing, results have shown that these EPI levels during a cognitive challenge is at least 40% lower than controls (Hanna et al., 1996). In a study which had subjects enhance beta activity and suppress theta in EEG activity during cognitive testing, those with ADHD improved in intelligence testing. Improvements were assumed to be a result of attention enhancement affected by EEG biofeedback (Linden et al., 1996). Improving Learning Disabilities in ADHD Children Investigating effectiveness of treatments of ADHD learning disabilities allows additional information on the social and bio-genetic causes of academic underacheivement related with this disorder. It has been stated that both instruction and contingency management is necessary to remedy academic deficits. Some techniques include; token economies, class rules, attention to positive behavior, as well as time out and response cost programs. Suggested to compliment and further increase probability of improvement is the alliance of parents, patient and school with the consideration of individual needs for the student and subsequently accommodating the environment to these needs. Scales such as the Academic Performance Rating Scale or daily report cards (due to necessity of immediate reinforcement) are useful in monitoring performance (Dulcan, 1997). Cognitive-behavioral interventions have also been shown to have a positive effect in academic achievement. Interventions such as self-instructional training, problem-solving training, attribution retraining and stress reduction procedure work as well. However well they work, these methods of interventions have not been widely implemented in treatment of ADHD children (Braswell, 1991). Many children are segregated into learning disability classes separate from other students. It is essential tutoring and resources be made for the child, however, many are able to learn at the same level with the other children. It has been found that many ADHD children are inappropriately placed in special education programs for the learning disabled. This is mainly because of social maladjustment, so extremes are not necessary. A percentage of ADHD students do exhibit normal intelligence but are socially inept. Therefore careful testing and diagnoses is imperative for the improvement of these youths. And by failing to provide interventions for their behavior problems, they may become restricted in their opportunities for academic success (Lopez et al., 1996). It is quite often found that the majority of ADHD children improve with psychopharmaceuticals, specifically stimulants such as Ritalin. Results reveal that medication related improvements include increased work output, improved accuracy and efficiency, and better learning acquisition (Dulkin et al., 1997). Learning and achievements in arithmetic, reading, and fine motor skills improve as well. There is a 70 to 90 percent response rate to stimulants (Gillberg et al., 1997). These results are quite dramatic in short term, but long term efficacy is still questioned (Braswell, 1991). There is much consensus in literature that a combination of treatment types is best to improve academic deficits. The cornerstones of treatment are support, education of parents, appropriate school placement, and psychopharmacology (Braswell et al., 1991; Dulcan et al., 1997; Gillberg et al., 1997; Nussbaum et al., 1990). In reviewing the current literature on how intelligence is affected by ADHD, it is easy to see that it is a subject yet to be firmly defined. Intelligence tests have been erroneously utilized in diagnosing and categorizing ADHD children and new tests must be developed in accordance to their disorder (Naglieri, 1997). The current increase in ADHD children seems somewhat suspicious. Is it an increase in the children, or a decrease in the deserved attention they are receiving from parents? The stimulant Ritalin is being overly diagnosed as a quick fix. There must be much more behavioral and parental/school attention intervention in order for this epidemic of hyper children to be curbed. It would be interesting to see this generation of Ritalin children grow. Intelligence and ADHD have been linked in twin and adoption studies to family, therefore these studies could still be testing quite different things. Other studies also have found links in hyperactivity and affect to genetic dispositions. In testing, it is hard to determine if it is genetic or environmental due to the fact that many with ADHD can also be without learning disorders (Beiderman et al., 1993). Therefore, if we are to label this as a disease a bio-social etiological approach is necessary in diagnosis, treatment and intelligence assessment.

The Ancient Mesopotamian Urban Community of Ur

The Ancient Mesopotamian Urban Community of Ur The Mesopotamian city of Ur, known as Tell al-Muqayyar and the biblical Ur of the Chaldees), was an important Sumerian city-state between about 2025-1738 BC. Located near the modern town of Nasiriyah in far southern Iraq, on a now-abandoned channel of the Euphrates river, Ur covered about 25 hectares (60 acres), surrounded by a city wall. When British archaeologist Charles Leonard Woolley excavated in the 1920s and 1930s, the city was a tell- a great artificial hill over seven meters (23 feet) high composed of centuries of building and rebuilding mud-brick structures, one stacked on top of another. Chronology of Southern Mesopotamia The following chronology of Southern Mesopotamia is simplified somewhat from that suggested by the School of American Research Advanced Seminar in 2001, based primarily on pottery and other artifact styles and reported in Ur 2010. Old Babylonian (Late Bronze Age, 1800-1600 BC)Isin-Larsa Dynasties (Middle Bronze Age, 2000-1800 BC)Ur III (2100-2000 BC)Akkadian (Early Bronze Age, 2300-2100 BC)Early Dynastic I-III (Sumerian, 3000-2300 BC)Late Uruk (Late Chalcolithic, 3300-3000 BC)Middle Uruk (3800-3300 BC)Early Uruk  (4100-3800 BC)Late Ubaid (4400-4100 BC)Ubaid Period (5900-4400 BC) The earliest known occupations at Ur city date to the Ubaid period of the late 6th millennium BC. By about 3000 BC, Ur covered a total area of 15 ha (37 ac) including early temple sites. Ur reached its maximum size of 22 ha (54 ac) during the Early Dynastic Period of the early 3rd millennium BC  when Ur was one of the most important capitals of the Sumerian civilization. Ur continued as a minor capital for Sumer and succeeding civilizations, but during the 4th century BC, the Euphrates changed course, and the city was abandoned. Living in Sumerian Ur During Urs heyday in the Early Dynastic period, four main residential areas of the city included homes made of baked mud brick foundations arranged along long, narrow, winding streets and alleyways. Typical houses included an open central courtyard with two or more main living rooms in which the families resided. Each house had a domestic chapel where cult structures and the family burial vault was kept. Kitchens, stairways, workrooms, lavatories were all part of the household structures. The houses were packed in very tightly together, with exterior walls of one household immediately abutting the next one. Although the cities appear very closed off, the interior courtyards and wide streets provided light, and the close-set houses protected the exposure of the exterior walls to heating especially during the hot summers. Royal Cemetery Between 1926 and 1931, Woolleys investigations at Ur focused on the Royal Cemetery, where he eventually excavated approximately 2,100 graves, within an area of 70x55 m (230x180 ft): Woolley estimated there were up to three times as many burials originally. Of those, 660 were determined to be dated to the Early Dynastic IIIA (2600-2450 BC)period, and Woolley designated 16 of those as royal tombs. These tombs had a stone-built chamber with multiple rooms, where the principal royal burial was placed. Retainerspeople who presumably served the royal personage and were buried with him or herwere found in a pit outside of the chamber or adjacent to it. The largest of these pits, called death pits by Woolley, held the remains of 74 people. Woolley came to the conclusion that the attendants had willingly drunk some drug and then lay down in rows to go with their master or mistress. The most spectacular royal graves in Urs Royal Cemetery were those of Private Grave 800, belonging to a richly adorned queen identified as Puabi or Pu-abum, approximately 40 years old; and PG 1054 with an unidentified female. The largest death pits were PG 789, called the Kings Grave, and PG 1237, the Great Death Pit. the tomb chamber of 789 had been robbed in antiquity, but its death pit contained the bodies of 63 retainers. PG 1237 held 74 retainers, most of which were four rows of elaborately dressed women arranged around a set of musical instruments. Recent analysis (Baadsgaard and colleagues) of a sample of skulls from several pits at Ur suggests that, rather than being poisoned, the retainers were killed by blunt force trauma, as ritual sacrifices. After they were killed, an attempt was made to preserve the bodies, using a combination of heat treatment and the application of mercury; and then the bodies were dressed in their finery and laid in rows in the pits. Archaeology at the City of Ur Archaeologists associated with Ur included J.E. Taylor, H.C. Rawlinson, Reginald Campbell Thompson, and, most importantly, C. Leonard Woolley. Woolleys investigations of Ur lasted 12 years from 1922 and 1934, including five years focusing on the Royal Cemetery of Ur, including the graves of Queen Puabi and King Meskalamdug. One of his primary assistants was Max Mallowan, then married to mystery writer Agatha Christie, who visited Ur and based her Hercule Poirot novel   Murder in Mesopotamia on the excavations there. Important discoveries at Ur included the Royal Cemetery, where rich Early Dynastic burials were found by Woolley in the 1920s; and thousands of clay tablets impressed with cuneiform writing which describe in detail the lives and thoughts of Urs inhabitants. Sources Baadsgaard A, Monge J, Cox S, and Zettler RL. 2011.  Human sacrifice and intentional corpse preservation in the Royal Cemetery of Ur.  Antiquity 85(327):27-42.Dickson DB. 2006. Public Transcripts Expressed in Theatres of Cruelty: the Royal Graves at Ur in Mesopotamia.  Cambridge Archaeological Journal  16(2):123–144. Jansen M, Aulbach S, Hauptmann A, Hà ¶fer HE, Klein S, Krà ¼ger M, and Zettler RL. 2016. Platinum group placer minerals in ancient gold artifacts – Geochemistry and osmium isotopes of inclusions in Early Bronze Age gold from Ur/Mesopotamia. Journal of Archaeological Science 68:12-23.Kenoyer JM, Price TD, and Burton JH. 2013. A new approach to tracking connections between the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia: initial results of strontium isotope analyses from Harappa and Ur. Journal of Archaeological Science 40(5):2286-2297.Miller NF. 2013. Symbols of Fertility and Abundance in the Royal Cemetery at Ur, Iraq. American Journal of Archaeology 117(1):127- 133. Oates J, McMahon A, Karsgaard P, Al Quntar S, and Ur J. 2007. Early Mesopotamian urbanism: a new view from the north.  Antiquity  81:585-600. Rawcliffe C, Aston M, Lowings A, Sharp MC, and Watkins KG. 2005. Laser Engraving Gulf Pearl ShellAiding the Reconstruction of the Lyre of Ur.  Lacona VI.Shepperson M. 2009.  Planning for the sun: urban forms as a Mesopotamian response to the sun.  World Archaeology  41(3):363–378.Tengberg M, Potts DT, and Francfort H-P. 2008.  The golden leaves of Ur.  Antiquity  82:925-936.Ur J. 2014. Households and the emergence of cities in ancient Mesopotamia. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 24(2):249-268.Ur J, Karsgaard P, and Oates J. 2011. The Spatial Dimensions of Early Mesopotamian Urbanism: The Tell Brak Suburban Survey, 2003-2006. Iraq 73:1-19.